Electronics is the study of the flow of charge through various materials and
devices such as, semiconductors, resistors, inductors, capacitors, nano-structures,
and vacuum tubes. All applications of electronics involve the transmission of either
information or power. Although considered to be a theoretical branch of physics,
the design and construction of electronic circuits to solve practical problems is
an essential technique in the fields of electronics engineering and computer engineering.
The study of new semiconductor devices and surrounding technology is sometimes considered
a branch of physics. This article focuses on engineering aspects of electronics.
Other important topics include electronic waste and occupational health impacts
of semiconductor manufacturing.
Contents [hide]
1 Overview of electronic systems and circuits
2 Electronic devices and components
3 Types of circuits
3.1 Analog circuits
3.2 Digital circuits
3.3 Mixed-signal circuits
4 Heat dissipation and thermal management
5 Noise
6 Electronics theory
7 Electronic test equipment
8 Computer aided design (CAD)
9 Construction methods
10 Electronics industry
11 Branch pages
12 See also
13 References
14 External links
[edit] Overview of electronic systems and circuits
Commercial digital voltmeter checking a prototypeElectronic systems are used to
perform a wide variety of tasks. The main uses of electronic circuits are:
The controlling and processing of data.
The conversion to/from and distribution of electric power.
Both these applications involve the creation and/or detection of electromagnetic
fields and electric currents. While electrical energy had been used for some time
prior to the late 19th century to transmit data over telegraph and telephone lines,
development in electronics grew exponentially after the advent of radio.
One way of looking at an electronic system is to divide it into 3 parts:
Inputs – Electronic or mechanical sensors (or transducers). These devices take signals/information
from external sources in the physical world (such as antennas or technology networks)
and convert those signals/information into current/voltage or digital (high/low)
signals within the system.
Signal processors – These circuits serve to manipulate, interpret and transform
inputted signals in order to make them useful for a desired application. Recently,
complex signal processing has been accomplished with the use of Digital Signal Processors.
Outputs – Actuators or other devices (such as transducers) that transform current/voltage
signals back into useful physical form (e.g., by accomplishing a physical task such
as rotating an electric motor).
For example, a television set contains these 3 parts. The television's input transforms
a broadcast signal (received by an antenna or fed in through a cable) into a current/voltage
signal that can be used by the device. Signal processing circuits inside the television
extract information from this signal that dictates brightness, colour and sound
level. Output devices then convert this information back into physical form. A cathode
ray tube transforms electronic signals into a visible image on the screen. Magnet-driven
speakers convert signals into audible sound.
[edit] Electronic devices and components
Main article: Electronic component
An electronic component is any indivisible electronic building block packaged in
a discrete form with two or more connecting leads or metallic pads. Components are
intended to be connected together, usually by soldering to a printed circuit board,
to create an electronic circuit with a particular function (for example an amplifier,
radio receiver, or oscillator). Components may be packaged singly (resistor, capacitor,
transistor, diode etc.) or in more or less complex groups as integrated circuits
(operational amplifier, resistor array, logic gate etc).
[edit] Types of circuits
[edit] Analog circuits
Main article: Analog circuits
Hitachi J100 adjustable frequency drive chassis.Most analog electronic appliances,
such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic
circuits. Analog circuits use a continuous range of voltage as opposed to discrete
levels as in digital circuits. The number of different analog circuits so far devised
is huge, especially because a 'circuit' can be defined as anything from a single
component, to systems containing thousands of components.
Analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects
are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog
circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, operational amplifiers and
oscillators.
Some analog circuitry these days may use digital or even microprocessor techniques
to improve upon the basic performance of the circuit. This type of circuit is usually
called 'mixed signal'.
Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits
as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation. An example is the
comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but puts out only one of
two levels as in a digital circuit. Similarly, an overdriven transistor amplifier
can take on the characteristics of a controlled switch having essentially two levels
of output.
[edit] Digital circuits
Main article: Digital circuits
Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels.
Digital circuits are the most common physical representation of Boolean algebra
and are the basis of all digital computers. To most engineers, the terms "digital
circuit", "digital system" and "logic" are interchangeable in the context of digital
circuits. In most cases the number of different states of a node is two, represented
by two voltage levels labeled "Low" and "High". Often "Low" will be near zero volts
and "High" will be at a higher level depending on the supply voltage in use.
Computers, electronic clocks, and programmable logic controllers (used to control
industrial processes) are constructed of digital circuits. Digital Signal Processors
are another example.
Building-blocks:
Logic gates
Adders
Binary Multipliers
Flip-Flops
Counters
Registers
Multiplexers
Schmitt triggers
Highly integrated devices:
Microprocessors
Microcontrollers
Application-specific integrated circuit(ASIC)
Digital signal processor (DSP)
Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA)
[edit] Mixed-signal circuits
Main article: Mixed-signal integrated circuit
Mixed-signal circuits refers to circuits (ICs) which have both analog circuits and
digital circuits combined on a single semiconductor die or on the same circuit board.
Mixed-signal circuits are becoming increasingly common. Mixed circuits are usually
used to control an analog device using digital logic, for example the speed of a
motor. Mixed circuits contain both analog and digital components. Analog to digital
converters and digital to analog converters are the primary examples. Other examples
are transmission gates and buffers.
[edit] Heat dissipation and thermal management
Main article: Thermal management of electronic devices and systems
Heat generated by electronic circuitry must be dissipated to prevent immediate failure
and improve long term reliability. Techniques for heat dissipation can include heatsinks
and fans for air cooling, and other forms of computer cooling such as water cooling.
These techniques use convection, conduction, & radiation of heat energy.
[edit] Noise
Main article: electronic noise
Noise is associated with all electronic circuits. Noise is generally defined as
any unwanted signal that is not present at the input of a circuit. Noise is not
the same as signal distortion caused by a circuit.
[edit] Electronics theory
Main article: Mathematical methods in electronics
Mathematical methods are integral to the study of electronics. To become proficient
in electronics it is also necessary to become proficient in the mathematics of circuit
analysis.
Circuit analysis is the study of methods of solving generally linear systems for
unknown variables such as the voltage at a certain node or the current though a
certain branch of a network. A common analytical tool for this is the SPICE circuit
simulator.
Also important to electronics is the study and understanding of electromagnetic
field theory.
[edit] Electronic test equipment
Main article: Electronic test equipment
Electronic test equipment is used to create stimulus signals and capture responses
from electronic Devices Under Test (DUTs). In this way, the proper operation of
the DUT can be proven or faults in the device can be traced and repaired.
Practical electronics engineering and assembly requires the use of many different
kinds of electronic test equipment ranging from the very simple and inexpensive
(such as a test light consisting of just a light bulb and a test lead) to extremely
complex and sophisticated such as Automatic Test Equipment.
[edit] Computer aided design (CAD)
Main article: Electronic design automation
Today's electronics engineers have the ability to design circuits using premanufactured
building blocks such as power supplies, semiconductors (such as transistors), and
integrated circuits. Electronic design automation software programs include schematic
capture programs and pcb design programs. Popular names in the EDA software world
are NI Multisim, Cadence (ORCAD), Eagle PCB and Schematic, Mentor (PADS PCB and
LOGIC Schematic), Altium (Protel), and many others.
[edit] Construction methods
Many different methods of connecting components have been used over the years. For
instance, in the beginning point to point wiring using tag boards attached to chassis
were used to connect various electrical innards. Cordwood construction and wire
wraps were other methods used. Most modern day electronics now use printed circuit
boards (made of FR4), and highly integrated circuits. Health and environmental concerns
associated with electronics assembly have gained increased attention in recent years,
especially for products destined to the European Union, with its Restriction of
Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS) and Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
Directive (WEEE), which went into force in July 2006.
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